From: The Art of Play: Helping Adults Reclaim Imagination and Spontaneity, by Adam Blatner, M.D. & Allee Blatner.
     (Published by Routledge, 1997, now out of print and being revised into 3rd edition. ) Comments welcome: Email to adam@blatner.com

Chapter 2: PLAY, PLEASURE & PARADOX
Adam Blatner & Allee Blatner

Revised September 2, 2008)    (For other chapters, see Table of Contents)
Sigmund Freud spoke of the “pleasure principle,” which is pretty obvious on the surface. Note, though, that one of the more important sources of pleasure is play. In a way, play is action done just for fun, for its own sake, or at least with fun as one of the major goals. When sports and art are done with a lot of striving and a sense that no mistakes are permissible, one might say that such activities are hardly play.

Johann Huizinga (1955) wrote a book titled Homo Ludens, noting that our species is more appropriately characterized by the sheer variety and pervasiveness of its forms of play than its exhibiting the “sapiens” (i.e., Latin for knowing---or tasting) quality. He pointed out that a great deal of what we call culture involves elements of play as they are woven into celebrations, the attainment of status through artistic endeavors, and explorations. Ashley Montagu makes this point in the foreword to this present book (i.e., The Art of Play), relating it also to a book he wrote, Growing Young (1981), that has a roughly similar conclusion. And the Romantic poet, Friedrich Schiller (1967, p. 215).) wrote in the early nineteenth century, "Man only plays when he is in the fullest sense of the word a human being; and he is only fully a human being when he plays."

Because one of the most obvious things about people is that they play, the drive to play should be recognized as a basic motivation, along with the drives mentioned in the last chapter—to touch, to be useful, to belong, and as time goes on, to experience effectiveness (an idea close to Adler’s coping with feelings of inferiority), to construct a sense of self, to find a sense of meaning and coherence, and so forth. The drive to play, which includes curiosity, experimentation, and both creating and discovering the nature of challenge in activities (including word play!) has been insufficiently addressed in many psychology texts, although there has been much more research on this topic in the last few decades (e.g., since the first edition of this book over 20 years ago).

In a broader sense, we support a greater recognition of the need for a wide range of forms of play and recreation and its inclusion in education and work (Sapora & Mitchell, 1961), including:
    singing         building             storytelling            toys                 exploring            conversing
   drawing        ceremonies        games                  leaping             sliding                 sports
   swinging       wordplay          rolling                   watching           climbing              jokes
      However, the emphasis in this book is on those forms of play that draw on imagination and improvisation, especially involving dramatic enactment and role playing.

Play is the major activity of the child, and, as Freud noted in 1925, children often seem quite serious as they play out their fantasies. Moreno noted that roles are first more imitation, just getting the moves down; then they are subject to increasing degrees of play as one tries out a wider range of variations of the moves, the words, and the types of interactions. There can be shifts of mood between relaxation and tension. As play skills develop, they become more complex. A third level then emerges, from playing a role to creating it to varying degrees. New variations are elaborated that may go beyond the original apparent definitions of the role. For example, when a young child learns to ride a bicycle, she holds on tight. As she begins to feel more than a little mastery, though, she begins to let go of first one hand and then—“Hey, look, Daddy, no hands!”

Play as Paradox

The late Gregory Bateson (1956), noted anthropologist and communications theorist, noted that play might be better understood as a special type of communication. This idea relates to contemporary theories of systems and differing logical types. There are practical implications in an approach to experience that acknowledges that humans think and relate to each other on many different levels at the same time. The most exciting of these for our purposes is the illumination of the process of play as an activity that includes more than one level of meaning, and the enjoyment that results from shifting between these levels.

We want to add to this the idea that there might be a primary motivation and expression of what Freud called "the pleasure principle" in play itself, the experience of overcoming apparent paradox. It seems the mind finds pleasure in manipulating its own inconsistencies; the process gives some mastery over confusion, allows the imagination to expand, and extends the sense of identity to include a greater range of experience (Fry, 1963). In other words, it's fun to juggle incongruous perceptions in the mind-to joke and go on roller coasters and to pretend.

For instance, the early games of infancy such as peekaboo have a psychoanalytic explanation that involves the baby's learning to control its anxiety regarding separations from the mother by developing a rudimentary intellectual capacity for knowing that something is still there, even when it cannot be directly seen-which is called "object constancy." We would emphasize yet another dynamic-the enjoyment of paradox itself. The growing child delights in feeling the subtle tension between perceiving something as being there and not being there at the same time. This is an act of internal balancing, the play of paradox. Later on, much of what is considered play or humor contains this element of internal incongruity. An example of this is an object or role in one category, such as an important, dignified, authority figure, who suddenly shifts into another logically in-consistent category, such as appearing ridiculous as he gets a cream pie thrown in his face (Fry & Allen, 1975).

So, what makes play fun—and funny—is that it combines two different states of mind: We know (sort of) what is “real,” but then there’s all this other stuff that happens or that we create that somehow isn’t really real. It’s different, and that feels funny-peculiar in our intuition. (Intuition should be recognized as a sense, more subtle than the five more obvious senses, but still a kind of perception!) So play is a paradox, a juxtaposition of not-real activity in certain ways on top of what we would ordinary think of as real, but . . . (Disorientation within a setting of relative safety is fun; in a context where there’s an intuition that real danger could ensue, it’s not fun! As long as slipping on a banana peel in a comedy has a consequence in which no one is actually hurt, it’s funny. A small child can often fall and because of the light weight and a bit of baby fat experience hardly a bruise. Grown-ups and elders not in movies or cartoons experience falls with more sustained consequences, and it's not funny at all.)

Play in a sense involves that context in which actions don’t have the real-life consequences that makes life somewhat scarey. You can shoot someone and they don’t really die. You can be fierce and roar like a lion and the other person may act scared, but you somehow both know it’s only play and that other continues to be your friend. Whew. Play, then, might be called relatively “fail-safe.”  Play actually generates that context. Kids get this very early, the difference between “this is only play” and “now this is not play, it is serious.” Another way to say this is that some activities are considered more “real” than others. It’s not either-or, though, play is an in-between, and here is the paradox: it’s unreal but it’s also real.

There is fun also in intensifying this paradox by making the play a bit closer to actually real, taking some risks. Some accidents come from this pushing the edge. (Telling a kid to be careful when he’s climbing a tree is silly: The challenge is to be as careful as possible while at the same time stretching the risk and skill demand of the activity. The category of being careful enough to avoid taking the risk seems, well, lame: It removes the challenge of the game! There’s fun, then, in being able to encompass these seemingly irreconcilable opposites; it's a form of mental juggling. At the depth psychology level, there is a kind of mastery, aesthetic tension, cathartic release, humorous amusement, and, in short, delight in discovering the subtle cleverness of mentally manipulating perceptions and cognition. At the social psychological level, this pleasure is increased and reinforced when it can be shared with others.
                   
Finally, this mixture of real and not real, anxiety and safety, is also seen in drama (and more clearly in action movies with a lot of suspense and narrow escapes). Indeed, the make-believe and pretend play of middle childhood is the root of theatre. Drama is a somewhat more refined kind of pretend play, elaborated into a social and commercial institution.

The Magic Power of "If"

A key word that functions as a signal for the change of definition of the reality-status of a proposition is the word "if." Sometimes this word is implied rather than explicitly stated. A special grammatical form called the "subjunctive" tense occurs in many languages. It is used in the case of events that exist conditionally, or as possibilities, rather than actualities. For example, "I would go with you if we could get a baby-sitter," or "I might like this" (here, the "if" is implied). "I wish I could do that." "If I were you I wouldn't do that." The subjunctive tense, with its use of distancing words like "would," "might," or "were," is similar in general function to the playful context (Bretherton, 1984).

In play, participants make an implicit agreement: Now we will behave as if our roles and interactions are real, while at the same time knowing that they are not “really real” in the sense of having the ordinary requirements and consequences of everyday life. This is accomplished through a set of verbal and nonverbal meta-communications, signals indicating that the subsequent behavior should be understood as play.

Meta-communication is a term that describes messages that modify the meaning of the obvious content. The old movie cliche, "Smile when you say that, pardner," is an example of how a  meta-communication can change the significance of a statement. In other words, if you smile, a remark ordinarily provoking retaliation won't be acted upon and, furthermore, it will be an acknowledgment of the other's power. Instead of spelling out all these interpersonal negotiations in cumbersome verbal agreements, a simple gesture, facial expression, tone of voice or inflection, the directionality of eye contact, or the chosen context, all serve as meta-communications that modify the meaning of whatever is said. Most direct interactions among humans and animals involve many levels of communication all occurring in simultaneous and interpenetrating complexes. These shifts of rhythm and action can be very quick and subtle, happening within the timespan of tenths of a second. Through such cues and reactions bear cubs can engage freely in rough-and-tumble mock combat without hurting each other.

Since psychological and social processes exist in a network of multilevel exchanges of information, it is valuable to learn how to be flexible in relationships. One way of developing this capacity is by learning how to shift perspective.

Imaginative, pretend play in childhood offers opportunities for many shifts of viewpoint. So do psychodrama and similar role-playing methods when used for therapy, education, or recreation. A variety of role components are used in such processes. Children's play, for example, includes such elements as: entering the general context of play, dealing with role distribution, entering the scene and enacting the roles, taking time out when needed, commenting on the interaction, etc. Imagine the shift of roles while you overhear the following: "Let's play." "I'll be the baby and..." "No, I want to be the baby." "Okay, you be the baby and I'll be the mommy." "Mommy, give me a cookie!" "Wait, let's get some cookies."

Drama should also be recognized as being a form of play, since it occurs in a realm of activity where the rules of ordinary reality no longer apply. Dr. J. L. Moreno (the inventor of psychodrama and therapeutic role playing) called this context "surplus reality". He was naming that dimension of our lives enriched by our imagination, modified by the psychological and dramatic devices such as condensation, amplification, or shifts of role or focus of attention  (Moreno, 1966) Ordinary reality, in contrast, can't offer the highlighting and dramatic focus. An abundance of mundane detail can often obscure the significance of an event. Using techniques that create surplus reality, the essential actions can be exaggerated and irrelevant ones eliminated. Further-more, in the realm of surplus reality, people can interact with their fantasy, memory, and other roles existing only in the mind.

A major benefit of play in therapy, education, and recreation occurs because the basic process of accessing creative solutions, ideas, and actions is learned. Bateson noted how children not only learn about the roles being enacted but, more importantly, they learn that roles can be played, can be manipulated as readily as the putting on and taking off of hats or costumes. Roles may be assumed, modified, refined, elaborated, and relinquished. This is a most liberating lesson. It invites us to reevaluate whatever roles we play, and realize that we are free to create them, renegotiate them with others, or let some parts of them drop away. The ability to do this fosters a capacity for increased responsibility in everyday life.

The Laboratory of Play

Make-believe or sociodramatic play is a natural vehicle of the child's exploration of physical, psychological, and social realities. When children play together, they give each other immediate feedback about each other's enactment. Their comments refer not so much to the artistic refinement of a portrayal so much as its simple accuracy or effectiveness: "Don't go over there, that's where the bad guys hide." "Let's do that again. This time do it this way." The fluid interchange of informal dramatic enactment offers an opportunity to try out a wide variety of approaches, from a coarse rendering of a role to some-thing more subtle. Different styles may be explored. In this sense, play is the child's form of scientific social investigation. Experimentation with various behaviors generates quick feedback regarding their social acceptability, and in this fluid context, they may be relatively easily modified until they achieve some consensual validation.

Play also establishes a context in which otherwise socially unacceptable behaviors are tolerated, if not actually enjoyed. Being silly, crude, seductive, babyish, bossy, mocking of authorities, going beyond the boundaries of propriety-all are common behaviors in the course of sociodramatic enactment. Thus, this realm of surplus reality offers people a relatively fail-safe context for self-expression,

In play, adults can utilize this dimension of drama to explore a wider range of roles. In these enactments, emotions can  be expressed and actions experienced that are unavailable in everyday life. For instance, you can take on a wide range of other social and professional roles without all the real requirements. Play allows for an expansion of your role-repertoire far beyond the opportunities afforded in ordinary life.

Expanding Consciousness Through Play

Psychological development, according to the theoretical orientation of role dynamics, is chiefly a process of the mind constantly seeking to expand in new experiences of all kinds-aesthetic, athletic, sensual, creative, expressive, social, intellectual, emotional, imaginative, spiritual, etc. The theory can address this rich and multidimensional quality of the mind better than some of the earlier, more reductionistic psychological systems that focused on themes such as conditioning, discharging tensions, reducing anxiety, or even over-simplified theories of learning. The co- creative self is an idea that includes all roles. Moreover, it celebrates the experiences of play and establishes them as equal with the processes of growth in "official" roles.

A related form of consciousness expansion comes with integration. When you discover not only that you can enjoy your eyes and hands, but you can use them together, there is a catharsis of relief and joy as your sense of self expands to include both elements in a synergistic system— with synergy meaning that the functioning power of the whole is greater than the sum of its parts (Blatner, 1985).

In play, children and adults experience a holistic integration of many components of learning: spontaneous originality, emotional reactions, unconscious motivations, personal temperament and style, social and cultural context, as well as the more researched intellectual processes. Play, therefore, is a primal form of learning by doing, and this complex co-creative process is becoming recognized as one of the most effective forms of education. Participatory, experiential approaches utilizing role-playing are excellent vehicles for learning skills, contexts, expectations, and the roles that embody those elements. Sociodramatic play is a prime example of an innate type of self-directed education.

The play of childhood extends into many forms as culture adapts these basic needs. Play elements may be found in all areas of human endeavor, such as scientific research, political campaigns, religious ceremony, or business conferences. Yet there should be a place for preserving the basic process of make-believe play as a continuing source of recreation and social involvement. (Creative drama activities or, for adults, the method of The Art of Play, offers a way to do just that.)

Nature has a wonderful way of motivating its organisms through pleasure. In order to ensure the accomplishment of essential tasks, eating is enhanced by taste, and procreation is motivated by sexual tension and enjoyment. The processes of learning and socializing in humans and some of the higher animals are also facilitated by an innate sense of fun that accompanies the freedom to explore alternative actions in the psychosocial context called play. In this special reality there is the opportunity to experience creative possibilities, and for this reason, it should be redeemed as an activity needed beyond childhood and throughout life.

References

Bateson, G. (1956). The message, this is play. In B. Schaffner (Ed.), Group processes: Transactions of the second conference. New York: Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation.

Blatner, A. (1985). The dynamics of catharsis. Journal of Group Psychotherapy, Psychodrama, and Sociometry, 37 (4), 157-166.

Bretherton, I. (1984). Representing the social world. In I. Bretherton (Ed.), Symbolic play: The development of social understanding. Orlando, F'L: Academic Press.

Freud, S. (1925). The relation of the poet to day-dreaming. In Collected Papers, Vol. 4. London: Hogarth Press, pp. 172-183.

Fry, W., Jr. (1963). Sweet madness: a study of humor. Palo Alto, CA: Pacific Books.

Fry, W., Jr., &  Allen, M. (1975). Make 'em laugh. Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behavioral Books.

Huizinga, J. (1955). Homo ludens: a study of the play element in culture. Boston: Beacon Press, (This is a classic in the field.)

Montagu, Ashley. (1981). Growing young. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Moreno, J. L. (1966). Psychiatry of the twentieth century: Function of the universalia: Time, space, reality, and cosmos. Group Psychotherapy, 19, 146-158.

Sapora; A. V., & Mitchell, E. D. (1961). The theory of play and recreation (3rd ed.). New York: The Ronald Press

Schiller, Friedrich. (1967). On the aesthetic education of man in a series of letters. (Edited by E. M. Wilkinson & L. A. Willoughby). Oxford, England: Clarendon Press.